Economic and public health impact of decentralized HIV viral load testing: A modelling study in Kenya.

Kenya has the world's 4th largest HIV burden. Various strategies to control the epidemic have been implemented, including the implementation of viral load (VL) testing to monitor HIV patients on ARVs. Like many resource limited settings, Kenya's healthcare system faces serious challenges in effectively providing quality health services to its population. Increased investments to strengthen the country's capacity to diagnose, monitor and treat diseases, particularly HIV and TB, continue to be made but are still inadequate in the face of global health goals like the UNAIDS 90:90:90 which require scaling up of VL tests amid existing constraints. In Kenya, there is an increase in the demand for VL tests amidst these existing constraints. The GeneXpert system is a diagnostic point-of-care technology that can quantify, amongst others, HIV VL. Currently, GeneXpert technology is widely distributed in Kenya for testing of tuberculosis. This study aimed to determine the economic and public health impact of incorporating VL test modules on the existing GeneXpert infrastructure. Markov models were constructed for different populations (non-pregnant adults, pregnant women and children). The scenarios analysed were 100% centralized VL testing compared to 50% GeneXpert plus 50% centralized VL testing, with time horizons of 5 years for the adult and child populations, and 31 months for the pregnant population. Incremental effectiveness was measured in terms of the number of HIV transmissions or opportunistic infections avoided when implementing the GeneXpert scenario compared to a 100% centralized scenario. The model indicated that, for all three populations combined, the GeneXpert scenario resulted in 117 less HIV transmissions and 393 less opportunistic infections. The cost decreased by $21,978,755 for the non-pregnant and pregnant adults and $22,808,533 for non-pregnant adults, pregnant adults and children. The model showed that GeneXpert would cost less and be more effective in terms of total cost per HIV transmission avoided and the total cost per opportunistic infection avoided, except for the pregnant population, when considered separately.

Does cancer risk increase with HbA1c, independent of diabetes?

BACKGROUND: The risks for several cancer types are increased in people with diabetes. Hyperglycaemia, hyperinsulinaemia, inflammation and altered hormonal concentrations are common characteristics between the two diseases and can all be linked to hyperglycaemia. METHODS: Here, we use glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) as a biomarker for chronic hyperglycaemia. We explore whether cancer risk increases with HbA1c, independent of diabetes, and, therefore, if risk is already increased below the diabetic HbA1c range, by analysing data from current studies linking HbA1c to risk of several cancer types. RESULTS: The data reveal that chronic hyperglycaemia correlates with increased cancer risk for a number of cancers, except prostate cancer. Evidence is also provided that risk is already increased in the pre-diabetic and normal ranges for several cancers. CONCLUSIONS: These results merit urgent investigation into the risks and advantages of updating recommendations for stricter glycaemic control in diabetic and non-diabetic subjects, as this could help reduce the risk of cancer incidence and mortality.

Impact of obesity on the prognostic value of the N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) in patients with acute myocardial infarction.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the influence of obesity on the predictive value of the pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) assay in acute myocardial infarction. DESIGN: Prospective observational study. SETTING: All intensive care units in one region of France. Patients 2217 consecutive patients admitted for an acute myocardial infarction matched with respect to age, gender, Killip class and renal function. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Cardiovascular death at one year. RESULTS: There were three groups (according to body mass index (BMI): obese, overweight and normal) of 739 matched patients. Median levels of NT-proBNP were considerably lower in high BMI patients, by about 20% in overweight and by 60% in obese patients, compared with normal BMI patients. An inverse relationship between the propeptide values and BMI was found in the overall study population (r = -0.20, p < 0.0001), and for both genders. In multivariate linear regression, BMI as a continuous variable was a predictor of the log NT-proBNP level, even when adjusted for potential confounders. CV mortality at 1-year follow-up was similar for the three BMI groups (p = 0.691). In multivariate logistic regression analysis, log NT-proBNP predicted mortality in normal (OR (95% CI) 3.48 (2.00 to 6.12)) and overweight (OR (95% CI) 3.96 (1.95 to 8.06)) patients, even when adjusted for confounders (GRACE risk score, left ventricular ejection fraction). However, in obese patients, propeptide levels failed to retain their independent prognostic value (OR (95% CI) 1.34 (0.86 to 2.08)). CONCLUSIONS: In this large population of patients with myocardial infarction, circulating NT-proBNP levels were considerably lower in obese patients; the significance of the propeptide level as an independent prognostic factor is severely compromised.

The free oxygen radicals test (FORT) to assess circulating oxidative stress in patients with acute myocardial infarction.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play an important role in the pathogenesis of many diseases including cardiovascular diseases. Several methods have been developed for the direct or indirect measurement of oxygen free radical and its by-products. The current study was designed to validate the new free oxygen radicals test (FORT) and to investigate the potential relationships between ROS and clinical or biological factors in male patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI). METHODS: We analysed FORT values in samples from 66 patients with AMI. RESULTS: FORT values ranged from 324 to 1198 FORT units, with a median value of 581 (494-754) FORT units. In univariate analysis, FORT values were positively related only to LVEF <40% (p=0.005), levels of CRP (r=0.438, p<0.001) and peak CK (r=0.274, p=0.028). Multiple linear regression analysis showed that CRP (p=0.023), LVEF <40% (p<0.001) and the presence of diabetes (p=0.039) were independent predictors of serum FORT values. This statistical model can explain 45% of the variance in FORT values (R(2)=0.45). CONCLUSIONS: The FORT is a simple tool to assess circulating ROS in routine clinical practice. Oxidative conditions such as inflammation and diabetes are the major determinants of FORT values in patients with AMI.

Comparative epidemiology of stroke and acute myocardial infarction: the Dijon Vascular project (Diva).

BACKGROUND: Despite a common pathophysiological mechanism (ie, atherosclerosis) and similar vascular risk factors, few reliable studies have compared the epidemiology of stroke and acute myocardial infarction (AMI). METHODS: All first ever cases of stroke and AMI in Dijon, France (151 846 inhabitants) from 2001 to 2006 were prospectively recorded. The 30 day case fatality rates (CFRs) and vascular risk factors were assessed in both groups. RESULTS: Over the 6 years, 1660 events (1020 strokes and 640 AMI) were recorded. Crude incidence of stroke was higher than that of AMI (112 vs 70.2/100 000/year; p<0.001). With regard to sex, the relative incidence of stroke compared with AMI was 0.88 (95% CI 0.60 to 1.29; p = 0.51) in women <65 years and 2.32 (95% CI 1.95 to 2.75; p<0.001) in those >65 years whereas it was 0.60 (95% CI 0.42 to 0.86; p<0.001) in men below 55 years, 1.01 (0.81 to 1.24, p = 0.96) in those between 55 and 75 years and 2.01 (95% CI 1.48 to 2.71; p<0.001) at 75 years and older. CFRs at 30 days were similar for stroke and AMI (9.80% vs 9.84%; p = 0.5). Hyperglycaemia (>7.8 mmol/l) at onset was significantly associated with higher CFR in both stroke and AMI patients. The prevalence of male sex, hypercholesterolaemia and diabetes was higher in AMI patients whereas hypertension was more frequent in stroke patients. CONCLUSION: These findings will help health care authorities to evaluate future needs for stroke and AMI services, and to develop secondary prevention strategies.

Prognostic value of N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide in elderly people with acute myocardial infarction: prospective observational study.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the influence of age on the predictive value of N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic (NT-proBNP) peptide assay in acute myocardial infarction. DESIGN: Prospective observational study. SETTING: All intensive care units in one French region. PARTICIPANTS: 3291 consecutive patients admitted for an acute myocardial infarction, from the RICO survey (a French regional survey for acute myocardial infarction). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Cardiovascular death at 1 year. RESULTS: Among the 3291 participants, mean age was 68 (SD 14) years and 2356 (72%) were men. In the study population, the median NT-proBNP concentration was 1053 (interquartile range 300-3472) pg/ml. Median values for age quarters 1 to 4 were 367 (119-1050), 696 (201-1950), 1536 (534-4146), and 3774 (1168-9724) pg/ml (P<0.001). A multiple linear regression analysis was done to determine the factors associated with the pro-peptide concentrations in the overall population. NT-proBNP was mainly associated with age, left ventricular ejection fraction, creatinine clearance, female sex, hypertension, diabetes, and anterior wall infarction. At one year's follow-up, 384 (12%) patients had died from all causes and 372 (11%) from cardiovascular causes. In multivariate analysis, NT-proBNP remained strongly associated with the outcome, beyond traditional risk factors including creatinine clearance and left ventricular ejection fraction, in each age group except in the youngest one (<54 years) (P=0.29). The addition of NT-proBNP significantly improved the performance of the statistical model in the overall study population (-2log likelihood 3179.58 v 3099.74, P<0.001) and in each age quarter including the upper one (1523.52 v 1495.01, P<0.001).The independent discriminative value of NT-proBNP compared with the GRACE score was tested by a diagonal stratification using the median value of the GRACE score and NT-proBNP in older patients (upper quarter). Such stratification strikingly identified a high risk group-patients from the higher NT-proBNP group and with a high risk score-characterised by a risk of death of almost 50% at one year. CONCLUSIONS: In this large contemporary non-selected cohort of patients with myocardial infarction, NT-proBNP concentration had incremental prognostic value even in the oldest patients, above and beyond the GRACE risk score and traditional biomarkers after acute myocardial infarction. These data further support the potential interest of clinical trials specifically assessing NT-proBNP measurement as a guide to current treatment strategies, as well as novel strategies, in older patients with acute myocardial infarction.

The Dijon Physical Activity Score: reproducibility and correlations with physical fitness in patients with coronary artery disease.

OBJECTIVES: To study the clinimetric properties of the Dijon Physical Activity Score (PAS) in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). PATIENTS: Two populations of patients with CAD: one group of stabilized patients from the RICO county-wide monitoring program and one group in the initial phase of a cardiovascular rehabilitation program (CVR group). METHODS: The patients carried out a maximal effort test on a cycle ergometer, plus two walking tests (a six-minute walk test and a 200 m fast walk test). They completed the Dijon PAS questionnaire on two occasions at an interval of 10 days. The reproducibility of the score and the latter's correlations with physical parameters were analyzed. RESULTS: Sixty-seven subjects were included and 52 answered the questionnaire both times. The average time spent answering the questionnaire was 173+/-37 seconds and reproducibility was satisfactory in the RICO group only. In this group, there were significant correlations between total score and maximal power during the effort test (r=0.41; P<0.05) and between the "sports/leisure activities" sub-score and maximal power (r=0.57; P<0.01). No correlations were found in the CVR group. CONCLUSION: The Dijon PAS is a simple, generic, reproducible and reliable score for measuring physical activity in patients with stable coronary artery disease but, because of the conjunction of confounding factors, it is not suitable for subjects who experienced a recent acute cardiac event. It could thus be used in epidemiological studies to determine the impact of a sedentary lifestyle and the efficacy of methods intended to counter sedentariness and to help design personalized secondary prevention programs.

[Long-term management of the stable coronary patient. The optimization of the medical treatment: a real objective]. / Prise en charge au long cours du coronarien stable. L'optimisation du traitement médical : un vrai objectif.

Cardiovascular disease is one of the major causes of early morbidity and death in the developed world, and is becoming a serious public health concern in many developing countries. Over the last 30 years, in the USA and France, coronary angioplasty has become a standard treatment for stable angina, and this despite the recommendations of Learned Societies concerning the treatment of this condition. Today, 85 % of angioplasty procedures are performed on patients with stable angina. This study presents meta-analyses that compare medical treatment with angioplasty, and examine the impact of these strategies on more specific populations such as the elderly and post-myocardial infarction patients. To our minds, this synthesis seems to be of particular importance as the COURAGE study has rekindled the debate by showing that improvements in medical treatment and way of life reduced mortality and the recurrence of MI at five years, whereas there was no positive impact of an invasive strategy in any of the subgroups. Nevertheless, as a whole, studies on this subject underscore the value of angioplasty in the medium term for symptom relief in the case of ineffective medical treatment, notably during an acute coronary syndrome both in patients under medical treatment and in those who underwent invasive therapy at the initial phase.

Plasma N-terminal Pro-Brain Natriuretic Peptide (Nt-proBNP) level and prognosis after myocardial infarction in diabetes.

Plasma N-terminal Pro-Brain Natriuretic Peptide (Nt-proBNP) level has been shown to provide valuable prognostic information on short and long-term mortality in patients with acute Myocardial Infarction, in the general population. Increased plasma Nt-proBNP levels have been found in Type 2 diabetic patients with vascular complications or with hypertension. In a large prospective study performed in 560 patients hospitalized for acute Myocardial Infarction (RICO), we found that median Nt-proBNP levels were significantly higher in the 199 diabetic patients compared to the 361 non-diabetic patients (245 (81-77) vs. 130 (49-199) pmol/L, P<0.0001). This difference remained highly significant after adjustment for confounding factors and we have been able to show that diabetes, per se, was a strong and independent factor for increased plasma Nt-proBNP levels, in this population. In the prospective RICO survey, we have found, in multivariable analysis, that diabetes was an independent factor for in-hospital mortality (OR: 1.79 [1.45-2.20]; P=0.0064) and cardiogenic shock (OR: 1.45(1.22-1.72); P =0.0364) when the variable Nt-proBNP level was not introduced into the model, but was less significantly associated with mortality (OR: 1.73 (1.39-2.16); P=0.0107) and no longer associated with cardiogenic shock when Nt-proBNP was in the model. This data suggest that increased plasma Nt-proBNP may be one of the links between diabetes and poor short-term prognosis after Myocardial Infarction and provides highly valuable prognostic information on in-hospital outcome in diabetic patients.

[Epidemiology of acute coronary syndrome in Europe]. / Epidémiologie du syndrome coronaire aigu en Europe.

Epidemiological data concerning acute coronary syndromes in Europe are based on national registries, studies by the European Society of Cardiology within the framework of the EuroHeart Survey and on the study of European population sub-groups in large international cohorts. In this article, recently published studies will be reviewed, and the principal developments in different countries as well as the characteristics and particularities of the most recent epidemiological data will be highlighted. In Europe, the presentation of acute coronary syndromes (ACS) has evolved considerably over the last ten years. This evolution is characterized by a reduction in the proportion of acute coronary syndromes with ST-segment elevation (STEMI) and by ageing populations.

[Long-term management of post acute coronary syndrome with oral antiplatelet therapy]. / Prise en charge au long cours par les anti-agrégants plaquettaires oraux après un syndrome coronaire aigu.

Cardiovascular disease is the primary cause of early death and morbidity in the industrialized world and is becoming a growing problem in many developing countries. Coagulation inhibitors play a major role in the management of the acute phase of ACS whether in association with reperfusion strategies or not. Currently, and in accordance with the results of major randomised studies, for medium and long-term management, the association of Clopidogrel and aspirin is the treatment of choice. However, despite the recognised benefits of this therapeutic strategy and above all the recommendations of learned societies, which have placed this bi-therapy in class I, according to national and international registries it is still underused. Moreover, all of these registries have confirmed, in the real world, the negative impact of not prescribing this antiplatelet therapy on morbidity and mortality after both ST and non-ST elevation acute coronary syndrome. which shows the difficulty of applying to everyday clinical practice the results of major randomised cohorts.

High levels of N-terminal pro B-type natriuretic peptide are associated with ST resolution failure after reperfusion for acute myocardial infarction.

BACKGROUND: B-type natriuretic peptide and the N-terminal fragment of its prohormone, N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (Nt-proBNP), provide valuable prognostic information on short- and long-term mortality in patients with acute coronary syndrome AIM: To investigate the association between plasma NT-proBNP levels and ST-segment resolution (STR) after reperfusion in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). METHODS: Consecutive patients from the French regional RICO survey with STEMI who were treated by primary PCI or lysis <12 h were included. Blood sample was taken on admission to measure plasma NT-proBNP. Maximal ST segment elevation was measured on the single worst ECG lead before and 90 min after reperfusion. Patients were categorized as STR(-) (<50% STR) or STR(+) (>or=50% STR). RESULTS: Of the 486 patients included, 133 (27%) were STR(-). STR(-) patients had similar cardiovascular risk factors but higher in-hospital mortality (5% vs. 1%, p=0.03) than STR(+) patients. The STR(-) group had higher median (IQR) levels of Nt-proBNP: 938 (211-3272) vs. 533 (169-1471) pg/ml, p=0.003. On multivariate analysis, the highest quartile of Nt-ProBNP, Q waves and lysis were independent risk factors for incomplete STR. DISCUSSION: Our data show a strong association between high levels of Nt-proBNP at admission and incomplete STR, suggesting that Nt-proBNP may be useful for early risk stratification in reperfusion therapy after acute myocardial infarction.

Impact of chronic oral anticoagulation on management and outcomes of patients with acute myocardial infarction: data from the RICO survey.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of chronic oral anticoagulant drug treatment (COA) among patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and its impact on management and outcome. METHODS: All patients with ST segment elevation AMI on the RICO (a French regional survey for AMI) database were included in this analysis. COA was defined as continuous use >or= 48 hours before AMI. RESULTS: Among the 2112 patients with ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), 93 (4%) patients were receiving COA. These patients were older and more likely to have a history of hypertension, diabetes and prior myocardial infarction than patients without COA. In addition, fewer patients who received COA underwent reperfusion therapy or received an antiplatelet agent (aspirin/thienopyridines). Moreover, patients receiving COA experienced a higher incidence of in-hospital major adverse events (death, recurrent myocardial infarction or major bleeding, p = 0.005). Multivariate analysis showed that only ejection fraction, current smoking and multiple vessel disease, but not COA, were independent predictive factors for major adverse events. In contrast, COA was an independent predictive factor for heart failure when adjusted for age, diabetes, creatinine clearance, reperfusion, heparin and glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors (odds ratio 2.06, CI 95% 1.23 to 3.43, p = 0.005). CONCLUSION: In this population based registry, patients with STEMI with prior use of COA constituted a fairly large group (4%) with an overall higher baseline risk profile than that of patients without COA. Fewer in the COA group received reperfusion therapy or aggressive antithrombotic treatment and they experienced more adverse in-hospital outcomes. Thus, further studies are warranted to develop specific management strategies for this high risk group.

[Risk stratification in pre-hospital management of myocardial infarction with ST elevation: value of a risk score profile]. / Stratification du risque dans la prise en charge préhospitalière des infarctus du myocarde avec sus-décalage du segment ST: intérêt du profil de score de risque.

The aims of this study were to evaluate new tools of risk stratification in an unselected population of myocardial infarction (MI), usable in a pre-hospital situation, and to compare the risk profile of these patients with those of other clinical trials or myocardial infarction registries. The risk scores of death at 30 days (TIMI score and TIMI risk index) based on data available in the context of coronary emergencies, were applied to the population base of the MI observatory of myocardial infarction in the Côte d'Or (RICO). The risk profile was expressed by the smoothed graph of frequency distribution of each score. The TIMI score applied to the RICO population had a high discriminating power (c = 0.80) for mortality whereas TIMI risk index was less powerful (c = 0.57). The risk profile of the RICO population was comparable to that of InTIME II, ASSENT 2 and the NRMI with reperfusion registry. The NRMI without reperfusion and the MAGIC studies had different profiles characterised by a shift in the graph towards high risk patients. The authors conclude that risk stratification scores, like the TIMI score, are valuable tools for early triage in the management of MI patients. The risk profiles allow comparative analysis of risk levels of populations notably with respect to other registries and also with respect to randomised clinical trials.

Hospital care of patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction in four different European regions. Data from four regional myocardial infarction registries in Berlin, Dijon, Florence, and Tartu.

National surveys as well as European comparative studies suggest that differences in treatment of patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) exist. The extent to which these variations influence the outcome of hospital care delivered to STE-MI patients in everyday routine is mostly unknown. In this study data representative of hospital care received by STEMI patients in four European regions (Berlin, Dijon, Florence and Tartu) were compared. The four registries are population based. The percentage of women and the mean age of the patients differed among the registries. Risk factors such as hypertension and hypercholesterolaemia also differed among the different regions, whereas a history of diabetes mellitus was similar among the registries. The percentage of patients receiving reperfusion therapy ranged from 47 to 81%. An appreciable difference also resulted after breaking down reperfusion therapy into thrombolysis and primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). Hospital mortality as an outcome measure was very similar among the regions. After adjustment for age, the comparative magnitude of hospital mortality proportion was also very similar among three registries. Only the patients from Florence demonstrated a comparatively lower death rate, with a ratio of 0.81. In summary, there are important differences among baseline characteristics and hospital care of STE-Ml patients in the four study regions. Nevertheless, it was interesting to ascertain that the outcome measured in hospital mortality was very similar among the four registries compared.

[Stratification scores for risk in the context of acute coronary syndromes]. / Scores de stratification du risque et syndromes coronariens aigus.

The patients presenting acute coronary syndrome with or without ST segment elevation form a heterogeneous population and thus the short and long-term risk of death or recurrent ischemic events can vary considerably. During ACS without ST elevation (unstable angina and non-ST elevation MI), the evaluation of risk is an essential step in the management of such patients, because it determines ulterior strategy. This evaluation is simple and reliable, and is principally based on three scores: the TIMI, the GRACE Score or the PURSUIT. Thanks to this stratification, high and medium-risk patients are able to benefit from early invasive management (stents and anti-GPIIb/IIIa) as recent studies have clearly shown. Even if immediate management of patients with non-ST elevation ACS does not take account of risk stratification, using such information in the medium and long-term does help determine the prognosis. Finally, the risk profile score, whatever the score used is today an essential tool, which helps qualify and especially compare patients included in international clinical studies.

[Non-revascularisation of acute coronary syndrome with ST elevation]. / Non-reperfusion au cours des syndromes coronaires aigus avec sus-décalage du segment ST. Données de RICO.

National therapeutic strategies in acute coronary syndromes (ACS) required revaluation, especially with regards to reperfusion. RICO is an observatory of ACS in the Côte d'Or district. Between January 1st 2001 and April 31st 2003, the cases of 706 patients with ACS and persistent ST elevation or appearances of left bundle branch block eligible for revascularisation (admitted < 12 hours after onset of symptoms and no contra-indications to thrombolysis), were reviewed. The number of revascularised patients was 488 (69%) and 218 (31%) were not revascularised. Thrombolysis was the most commonly used method of revascularisation (66%) in this district: 34% underwent primary angioplasty. Multivariate analysis showed only three independent predictive factors of non-reperfusion during the acute phase. They were: age (> or = 75 years) (p < 0.001), left bundle branch block (p = 0.002) and hospital admission > or = 6 hours after onset of symptoms (p < 0.001). These results confirm the utility of developing networks to improve the efficacy of management and reduce the delay before hospital admission. They also identify specific population groups, the elderly for example, who require specific therapeutic strategies for coronary revascularisation in ACS.

N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide levels in patients with non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction.

METHODS AND RESULTS: 101 patients hospitalized for acute non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) were included in the study. Median N-terminal fragment of the brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) prohormone (Nt-proBNP) plasma level was 136 (40-335) pmol/l. Patients with increasing levels of troponin I [from low (0.1-10 ng/ml), intermediate (10-40 ng/ml) to high (> or =40 ng/ml) levels] had significantly increased levels of Nt-proBNP (p < 0.05). High-risk patients classified by a high PURSUIT score (i.e. supramedian) had significantly increased Nt-proBNP levels compared to patients with low scores (p < 0.001). Moreover, patients with in-hospital events (death, recurrent MI or clinical heart failure: 27%) had significantly increased median levels of Nt-proBNP compared to event-free patients (184 vs. 105 pmol/l, p = 0.02). CONCLUSION: Our data in an unselected population of NSTEMI patients indicate that high levels of circulating Nt-proBNP levels are associated with an increased risk of early cardiovascular events.

[Predictive value of glycemia in acute coronary syndromes]. / Valeurs prédictives de la glycémie dans les syndromes coronaires aigus. Revue de la littérature.

Intravenous insulin therapy is used in diabetic patients at the acute phase of coronary syndrome (ACS). However, hyperglycemia in diabetic patients is a powerful predictive factor for patient outcome as it is associated with a doubling of in-hospital mortality and poor long-term prognosis. Recent studies involving non-diabetic patients show that even mild hyperglycemia in the setting of ACS is also a predictive factor of in-hospital mortality. Moreover, the new entity called impaired fasting glucose (IFG) (6.1 to 7 mmol/L) is not only an independent factor of mortality for coronary patients, but very recently has also been associated with a doubling of the risk of in-hospital mortality in the setting of ACS. Admission as well as follow-up glycaemia are fundamental parameters in ACS on the one hand for their prognostic value, and on the other end as a diagnostic tool in determining the presence of diabetes or IFG.